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Neolithic Era 6000-1700 BC

Many thousands of years ago, our earliest ancestors were nomadic tribes that survived by foraging the wild for food and shelter. During the Neolithic era, human groups first began to settle down permanently, establishing villages and communities. However, without new technological innovations, this sedentary culture would not have been possible. Foremost among these discoveries were agriculture and tool-making, both of which enabled humans to transform their natural environment into a sustainable society. Many thousands of years ago, the area presently covered by modern China was made up of distinct regions each with their own unique cultural identity. Archaeologists have been able to discern some of these cultures from each other based upon the burial styles, architecture, and pottery, perhaps the most immediate remnant of this age.

Shang Dynasty 1600-1050 BC

The Shang is the earliest Chinese dynasty for which we have written evidence. Shang civilization was a series of towns united under the Shang king. The center of the Shang domain was found in the eastern and northeastern regions of Henan. The king's residence was in the center of the city. It was built on a north-south axis. All buildings in the city were rectangular and were made of mud with wooden beams. In addition to the king, the nobility lived within the city. They also lived in houses of mud. The Shang held their royal ancestors in high regard. Bronze was found in royal tombs as well as the skeletons of about three hundred servants who were to accompany the king to the heavenly world. Funery tablets were kept in the front of temples and all rituals were carried out in their presence. These tablets were thought to contain the souls of the ancestors. Every royal event was announced aloud in the temples to inform the ancestors. In addition, the diviners often consulted the ancestors by offering sacrifices and reading the cracks of burnt bones.

Zhou Dynasty 1050-221 BC

In 1122 B.C., at the battle of Muyeh, the rebellious Zhou tribe defeated the imperial troops of the Shang Dynasty, China's first Imperial Dynasty. The Zhou Dynasty is itself composed of two periods that historians have dubbed Western (1122-771 B.C.) and Eastern (770-221 B.C.). During the Western period, the Zhou ruled from their capital Zongzhou (near modern Xian). While the Zhou were highly influence by the Shang, over time, they developed their own unique style of decorating bronze and terracotta vessels. Perhaps their most important artistic innovation was the creation of primitive glazes. However, ambitious campaigns to expand their territory westward failed, and in 771, nomadic invaders ransacked Zongzhou, forcing the Zhou to flee eastwards to the city of Chengzhou, which became their second capital.

Han Dynasty 206 BC-AD 220

The Han era can also be characterized as one of the greatest artistic outpourings in Chinese history, easily on par with the glories of their Western contemporaries, Greece and Rome. Wealth pouring into China from trade along the Silk Road initiated a period of unprecedented luxury. Stunning bronze vessels were created, decorated with elegant inlaid gold and silver motifs. Jade carvings reached a new level of technical brilliance. But perhaps the artistic revival of the Han Dynasty is nowhere better represented than in their sculptures and vessels that were interred with deceased nobles. Called mingqi, literally meaning spirit articles, these works depicted a vast array of subject, from warriors and horses to ovens and livestock, which were buried alongside the dead for use in the next world, reflecting the Chinese belief that the afterlife was an extension of our earthy existence. Thus, quite logically, the things we require to sustain and nurture our bodies in this life would be just as necessary in our next life.

Six Dynasties 220-589

(AD 220�89), in China, the period between the end of the Han dynasty (AD 220) and the foundation of the Sui (581; conquest of the South, 589). The name is derived from the six successive dynasties that had their capitals at the central Chinese city of Nanking during this time: the Wu (222�80), the Eastern Chin (317�20), the Liu-Sung (420�79), the Southern Ch'i (479�02), the Southern Liang (502�57), and the Southern Ch'en (557�89).

Sui dynasty 589-618

The Sui Dynasty lasted from 580-618 A.D. The Sui once again united China. They were led in their campaign to unite China by Yang Chien who had been an official of the Northern Zhou. The Sui Dynasty had only two emperors, Yang Chien who was called Emperor Wen Ti and his son Emperor Yang. Traditionally, Emperor Yang is portrayed as usurping the imperial power, and is criticized for the amount of money he spent and his cruelty to the people. Yet most of the policies he followed were simply continuations of his father's policies.

Tang dynasty 618-906

The Tang Dynasty was an era of unrivalled wealth and luxury. The country was successfully reunified and the borders were expanded, pushing Chinese influence into new lands. Confucianism became a quasi-religious instrument of the state; yet Buddhism continued to flourish, spreading into Korea and Japan. The arts reached new levels of sophistication. Poetry and literature flourished under the enlightened rulers. The Silk Road brought fortunes into China. Precious treasures were imported on the backs of camels from far away lands and bartered for Chinese silk, medicinal herbs, and pungent spices. Tang China was a multicultural empire where foreign merchants from across Central Asia and the Middle East settled in the urban centers, foremost among them the thriving capital of Chang An (modern Xian), a bustling cosmopolitan center of over two million inhabitants. Foreign traders lived next to native artisans and both thrived. New ideas and exotic artistic forms followed alongside. The Tang Dynasty was a cultural renaissance where many of the forms and objects we now associate with China were first created. Moreover, this period represents one of the greatest cultural outpourings in human history.

Five Dynasties 907-960

Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms, period of Chinese history between the fall of the T'ang dynasty (A.D. 907) and the establishment of the Sung dynasty (A.D. 960). It is named for the five successive short-lived dynasties and the ten dominant kingdoms that existed during this period. Characterized by anarchy and national disunity, the period is one of the bleakest in Chinese history. Warfare and official corruption were endemic, and barter replaced the monetary system in many parts of the country. Northern China was particularly affected; its canal and dam system fell into disrepair, causing extensive flooding and famine. The period, however, was marked by one major accomplishment—the widespread development of printing. Many Confucian, Buddhist, and Taoist classics were printed, including the first complete set of the Confucian writings.

Song dynasty 960-1279

After the fall of the Tang Dynasty, a period of unrest and war ensued. The foundation of the Northern Song Dynasty in 960 A.D. and the political unification that followed brought these chaotic times to an end. The Song era is considered the third great cultural flourashing of Chinese civilization. Many of the aesthetic elements that now characterize Chinese landscape painting were first developed during the Song age. Traditional text were reanalyzed and reinterpreted, bringing forth a revival of Confucianism peppered with new ideas. The centralized bureaucratic system of the Song replaced the heriditary aristocratic order that had become entrenched. In 1125 A.D., the Jurchen, a seminomadic people from the north, invaded Song China, captured their captial city, and established a dynasty of their own, the Jin, in the north. The Song court fled south to Hangzhou where they reestablished the Southern Song Dynasty that would continue to rule for another 120 years. The Song viewed themselves as the culmination of two thousand years of Chinese culture. It is during the Southern Song period when ceramic production in particular reached the height of elegance and technical perfection. Foreign trade fuled much of the growth of the Southern Song. The Song court had a voracious appetite for luxury goods imported from abroad, especially spices from the East Indies. However, splinters began to emerge among the various ethnic groups that had been unified under the Tang. As these ethnic rivalries grew, the government became fractured after officials began to oppose each other. Left in this weakened state, the Song Dynasty eventually collapsed after the Mongols invaded and conquered their territory in 1279 A.D.

Yuan dynasty 1279-1368

The Yuan Dynasty was established by Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, upon relocating the capital of his empire from Mongolia to Beijing. The Forbidden City was constructed, a relative oasis of Mongolian culture in the heart of China. While the Mongol elite retained their native language and customs, they did adapt the Chinese system of bureaucratic government and cemented the authoritarian rule of the emperor. Although they were unaffected by Chinese culture, the Yuan did little to stifle the native traditions and beliefs of their subjects. Buddhism continued to flourish, although the monasteries received little funding from the state. In fact, during the Yuan Dynasty, China first began to open up to foreigners. Christian and Hindu missionaries were established in Beijing and Marco Polo made his famous journey during the Yuan era. While the Chinese never accepted the Yuan as a legitimate dynasty, instead viewing them as foreign bandits . In the end, the Yuan Dynasty had the shortest duration of the major Chinese Dynasties, lasting little more than a hundred years.

Ming dynasty 1368-1644

Upon leading a victorious rebellion against the foreign Mongul rulers of the Yuan Dynasty, a peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang seized control of China and founded the Ming Dynasty in 1368. As emperor, he founded his capital at Nanjing and adopted the name Hongwu as his reign title. Hongwu, literally meaning Vast military, reflects the increased prestige of the army during the Ming Dynasty. Due to the very realistic threat still posed by the Mongols, Hongwu realized that a strong military was essential to Chinese prosperity. Thus, the orthodox Confucian view that the military was an inferior class to be ruled over by an elite class of scholars was reconsidered. During the Ming Dynasty, China proper was reunited after centuries of foreign incursion and occupation. Ming troops controlled Manchuria, and the Korean Yi Dynasty respected the authority of the Ming rulers, at least nominally.

Qing dynasty 1644-1911

The Qing Dynasty was the second time when the whole of China was ruled by foreigners, the Manchu. The first time was during the Yuan Dynasty when China was controlled by the Mongols. The Qing Dynasty lasted from 1644-1911 A.D. The reigns of the first three emperors of this dynasty were a time of peace and prosperity for China. These three rulers provided strong leadership for 133 years; they were the Kangxi Emperor who reigned from 1662-1722 A.D., the Yongzheng Emperor who reigned from 1722-1736 A.D. and the Qianglong Emperor who reigned from 1736-1796 A.D. In terms of government, the Qing Dynasty adopted the form of government used by the Ming, with only minor adjustments. For example the positions were all dual positions, one Manchu and one Chinese were in the same position, with the Manchu having more power. The form of military organization that the Qing used was one of the best in the world. They organized their troops under banners, each of which was a separate unit. The number of banners grew from 8 in the beginning to 24. These fighting men were personally attached to the emperor, in fact he owned them. They were incredibly loyal to the emperor. The bannermen also functioned as a talent pool from which civil bureaucrats could be chosen.